Bullying and cyberbullying, what do they have in common and what not? A latent class analysis / Acoso y ciberacoso, ¿qué es igual y qué es distinto? Un análisis de clases latentes

El acoso escolar y el ciberacoso se presentan como comporta-mientos de riesgo durante la adolescencia. Aunque se ha reconocido una importante relación entre ambos fenómenos, aspectos referidos a su preva-lencia, la semejanza y diferencia entre uno y otro, la transferencia de roles, así como los aspectos emocionales, sociales y morales asociados aún están sin resolver. El objetivo fue explorar los perfiles de implicación en acoso y ciberacoso a través de un análisis de clases latentes y examinar su asocia-ción con desconexión moral, ajuste social y normativo y rumiación de la ira. Se presenta un estudio longitudinal en dos tiempos con 3,006 escolares de secundaria (Medad= 13.53; 51.9% chicas). Se utilizaron autoinformes ampliamente validados en la población de referencia. Los resultados mos-traron cuatro clases latentes: no implicados, víctimas-cibervíctimas, agreso-res victimizados y totalmente implicados. Análisis de regresión logística identificaron un bajo ajuste social en los totalmente implicados, bajo ajuste normativo y alta desconexión moral en perfiles mixtos, y alta rumiación de la ira en todos los perfiles de implicación, principalmente en agresores vic-timizados. Se discuten estos resultados en términos de su valor para com-prender los matices que distinguen el acoso y ciberacoso, de la existencia de roles puros y mixtos y de las variables emocionales, sociales y morales asociadas.(AU)

Bullying and cyberbullying are risky behaviours which normally occur during adolescence. Although an important relationship has been recognized between the two phenomena, issues related to their prevalence, the similarity and difference between them, the transfer of roles, as well as the emotional, social, and moral aspects associated with them, remain un-resolved. The aim of this study was to explore the roles ofinvolvement in bullying and cyberbullying through an analysis of latent classes, and exam-ine their association with moral disengagement, social and normative ad-justment, and anger rumination. The study had a two-stage longitudinal de-sign, with 3,006 secondary school students (Mage= 13.53; 51.9% girls), us-ing extensively validated self-reports in the reference population. The re-sults showed four latent classes: uninvolved, victim-cybervictim, bully-victim and wholly involved. Logistic regression analyses identified a low social adjustment in those wholly involved, low normative adjustment and high moral disengagement in mixed profiles, and high anger rumination in all involvement profiles, mainly in bully-victim. These results are discussed in terms of their value in understanding the distinctions between bullying and cyberbullying, the existence of pure and mixed roles, and the associat-ed emotional, social, and moral variables.(AU)

Trajectories of defending behaviors: Longitudinal association with normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity.

Defending the victim in bullying situations is a moral behavior that has received increasing attention in the literature. However, important questions about the development and maintenance of defending behaviors remain unanswered. The present study adopted a longitudinal design with two main goals: (a) identifying trajectories of change in individuals' defending behavior over time and (b) describing and comparing the initial levels and dynamics of change in normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity between the different defending trajectories. A total of 3303 students (49.8% girls; Wave 1 Mage = 12.61 years; SD = 1.47) participated in the study. Data were collected in four waves with self-report questionnaires. Using growth mixture modeling, we found four defending trajectories (84% stable-high, 5% decrease, 4% increase, and 7% stable-low). Growth mixture model multigroup and comparative analyses found that adolescents in the stable-high defending group exhibited the highest initial levels of normative adjustment (Mintercept = 5.47), social adjustment (Mintercept = 5.48), and self-perceived popularity (Mintercept = 5). Adolescents in the decrease defending group tended to reduce their normative adjustment over time (Mslope = -0.09), whereas the increase defending group increased their social adjustment (Mslope = 0.18) and self-perceived popularity (Mslope = -0.04). The stable-low defending group showed low and stable levels of normative adjustment (Mintercept = 5.01), social adjustment (Mintercept = 5.03), and self-perceived popularity (Mintercept = 4.4). These results indicate a strong association between normative and social adjustment and self-perceived popularity and involvement in defending behaviors. Bullying prevention programs could improve by adding a stronger focus on the development of classroom dynamics that promote adjusted behaviors and class-group cohesion.

Aggressive and Defensive Behaviour, Normative, and Social Adjustment in the Complex Dynamics of School Bullying.

Bullying is a group phenomenon in which schoolchildren take on different roles. Although certain contextual elements play a key role in its evolution, very few longitudinal studies have been carried out to date which investigate how these factors interact. This study aims to explore the different class groupings as regards bullying norms and to examine the effect of the type of norm, social, and normative adjustment and pro-sociality, also of the interaction of group norms with involvement in aggression and victim defence in bullying situations. A total of 3,358 secondary school students (50.71% girls, Mage = 13 years, SD = 1.34) participated in the study. Four groups of norms towards bullying were identified: anti-bullying, anti-bullying but not actively defending, indifference, and pro-bullying. Univariate linear regression models showed that normative adjustment and the type of norms had a direct inverse effect on both types of behaviour, while pro-sociality only had an effect on defence. In groups with pro-bullying norms, a greater effect of normative adjustment was observed for involvement in defence and aggression, and pro-social skills were associated with aggression. These results suggest the need to work on moral, social and emotional elements to improve school climate in schools.

El acoso escolar es un fenómeno grupal en el que los escolares asumen roles diferentes. Aunque determinadas características contextuales juegan un papel fundamental en su evolución, aún son escasos los estudios longitudinales que exploran cómo interactúan dichos factores. El presente estudio tiene como objetivos explorar los diferentes tipos de agrupamientos de clases según las normas de acoso escolar y examinar el efecto del tipo de norma, el ajuste social y normativo y la prosocialidad, así como la interacción de las normas del grupo con la implicación en la agresión y defensa de la víctima en situaciones de acoso. Un total de 3,358 escolares de secundaria (50.71 % chicas, Medad = 13 años, DT = 1.34) participaron en el estudio. Se identificaron cuatro grupos de normas hacia el acoso: antibullying, en contra del acoso, en contra pero sin defender activamente, neutral y a favor del acoso. Los modelos de regresión lineal univariados mostraron que el ajuste normativo y el tipo de normas tenían un efecto directo inverso en ambas conductas, mientras que la prosocialidad solo tuvo un efecto inverso sobre la conducta de defensa. En los grupos con normas antiacoso se observó un mayor efecto del ajuste normativo en la implicación en la defensa y agresión y que las habilidades prosociales se asociaban con la agresión. Los resultados sugieren que es necesario trabajar los aspectos morales, sociales y emocionales para mejorar el clima escolar.

Aggressive and Defensive Behaviour, Normative, and Social Adjustment in the Complex Dynamics of School Bullying / [La conducta agresiva y de defensa, y el ajuste normativo y social en las complejas dinámicas de acoso escolar]

Bullying is a group phenomenon in which schoolchildren take on different roles. Although certain contextual elements play a key role in its evolution, very few longitudinal studies have been carried out to date which investigate how these factors interact. This study aims to explore the different class groupings as regards bullying norms and to examine the effect of the type of norm, social, and normative adjustment and pro-sociality, also of the interaction of group norms with involvement in aggression and victim defence in bullying situations. A total of 3,358 secondary school students (50.71% girls, Mage = 13 years, SD = 1.34) participated in the study. Four groups of norms towards bullying were identified: anti-bullying, anti-bullying but not actively defending, indifference, and pro-bullying. Univariate linear regression models showed that normative adjustment and the type of norms had a direct inverse effect on both types of behaviour, while pro-sociality only had an effect on defence. In groups with pro-bullying norms, a greater effect of normative adjustment was observed for involvement in defence and aggression, and pro-social skills were associated with aggression. These results suggest the need to work on moral, social and emotional elements to improve school climate in schools.(AU)

El acoso escolar es un fenómeno grupal en el que los escolares asumen roles diferentes. Aunque determinadas características contextuales juegan un papel fundamental en su evolución, aún son escasos los estudios longitudinales que exploran cómo interactúan dichos factores. El presente estudio tiene como objetivos explorar los diferentes tipos de agrupamientos de clases según las normas de acoso escolar y examinar el efecto del tipo de norma, el ajuste social y normativo y la prosocialidad, así como la interacción de las normas del grupo con la implicación en la agresión y defensa de la víctima en situaciones de acoso. Un total de 3,358 escolares de secundaria (50.71 % chicas, Medad = 13 años, DT = 1.34) participaron en el estudio. Se identificaron cuatro grupos de normas hacia el acoso: antibullying, en contra del acoso, en contra pero sin defender activamente, neutral y a favor del acoso. Los modelos de regresión lineal univariados mostraron que el ajuste normativo y el tipo de normas tenían un efecto directo inverso en ambas conductas, mientras que la prosocialidad solo tuvo un efecto inverso sobre la conducta de defensa. En los grupos con normas antiacoso se observó un mayor efecto del ajuste normativo en la implicación en la defensa y agresión y que las habilidades prosociales se asociaban con la agresión. Los resultados sugieren que es necesario trabajar los aspectos morales, sociales y emocionales para mejorar el clima escolar.(AU)

Bullying and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization: Prospective Within-Person Associations.

Bidirectional associations between bullying and cyberbullying have consistently identified during adolescence. However, little is known about how this relationship works on the within-person level, after controlling for potential overlap at the between-person level. This study examined the bidirectional longitudinal associations between bullying and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization during 18-month period over four time points. A total of 2835 participants, aged 11 to 16 years in time 1 (50% girls; Mage = 13.13, SD = 1.06) were surveyed. Random intercept cross-lagged analyses revealed the stability of bullying perpetration and victimization. Cyberbullying victimization predicted inversely bullying and cyberbullying perpetration. The results indicate spirals of positive long-term associations between bullying (perpetration and victimization) and cyberbullying perpetration but no long-terms spirals of victimization.

Adolescents' social anxiety dynamics in a latent transition analysis and its psychosocial effects

Background/Objective: The present study aims to explore the dynamics of social anxiety profiles in adolescents over time and the psychosocial effects these dynamics have.Method: A representative sample of Andalusian (southern Spain) adolescents in Secondary Education was drawn. The study used single-stage stratified cluster sampling. A total of 2,140 students aged 11-16 years (47% girls; MageT1 = 13.68, SD = 1.27) were involved at two time points with a six-month interval.Results: The results provided a four-profile structure: low social anxiety, moderate cognitive disturbance, high with difficulties in new situations, and high social anxiety. The latent transition analysis showed a stability in the social anxiety profiles of between 58%-61%. Those adolescents who remained in or transitioned to profiles with higher social anxiety scored worse on peer adjustment, peer victimization and subjective well-being.Conclusions: The study may contribute the improvement of the psychological treatments in social anxiety and reduce adverse effects on peer relationships and well-being by distinguishing the profiles and their dynamics. (AU)

Adolescents' social anxiety dynamics in a latent transition analysis and its psychosocial effects.

Background/Objective: The present study aims to explore the dynamics of social anxiety profiles in adolescents over time and the psychosocial effects these dynamics have. Method: A representative sample of Andalusian (southern Spain) adolescents in Secondary Education was drawn. The study used single-stage stratified cluster sampling. A total of 2,140 students aged 11-16 years (47% girls; Mage T1 = 13.68, SD = 1.27) were involved at two time points with a six-month interval. Results: The results provided a four-profile structure: low social anxiety, moderate cognitive disturbance, high with difficulties in new situations, and high social anxiety. The latent transition analysis showed a stability in the social anxiety profiles of between 58%-61%. Those adolescents who remained in or transitioned to profiles with higher social anxiety scored worse on peer adjustment, peer victimization and subjective well-being. Conclusions: The study may contribute the improvement of the psychological treatments in social anxiety and reduce adverse effects on peer relationships and well-being by distinguishing the profiles and their dynamics.

El Amor romántico y sus mitos en Colombia: una revisión sistemática / The Romantic Love and Related Myths in Colombia: A Systematic Review

Resumen Introducción: En Colombia, la violencia de pareja es una importante causa de agresión contra las mujeres. Sus principales detonantes son el machismo, los celos y la infidelidad. Algunas investigaciones señalan que los "mitos románticos" podrían contribuir a esta violencia, al reafirmar roles de género desiguales y patriarcales. Método: El trabajo es una revisión sistemática cualitativa, orientada a sintetizar los estudios empíricos sobre el amor romántico en Colombia. Siguiendo el protocolo Prisma, la muestra estuvo conformada por los artículos de mayor impacto, publicados en bases de datos especializadas de ciencias sociales, con énfasis en la psicología, se seleccionaron 26 estudios. Resultados: Los resultados señalan que los mitos románticos se encuentran relacionados con la violencia de pareja. En particular, los celos y la infidelidad constituyen los detonantes prioritarios de la agresión. Conclusión: Se concluye que el marco de creencias sociales sobre el amor en la cultura colombiana es fuertemente patriarcal, marco que se sustenta en un relacionamiento desigual, dominador y controlador entre los sexos, conducente a la violencia en la pareja.

Abstract Introduction: In Colombia, domestic violence is an important cause of aggression against women with machoism, jealously, and infidelity being the key triggers. Some research indicates that romantic love and related myths may be contributing factors towards the emergence or persistence of domestic violence, as they reaffirm unequal and patriarchal gender roles. Method: This work is a systematic review aimed to synthase the empirical studies about romantic love in Colombia. Following the Prisma protocol, the sample was made up of high-impact articles published in specialized databases about social science with a focus on psychology and 26 were selected. Results: The results pointed that in the Colombian context, the romantic myths are found related to domestic violence, and jealousy and infidelity appearing as signs of aggression. Conclusion: It is concluded that the background of the social beliefs about romantic love in the Colombian culture is highly patriarchal, holding is an unequal, dominating and controlling relationship between the sexes that conduces the gender violence in relationships

Friendship selection and influence processes for popularity in early and mid-adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined the effect of popularity levels on friendship selection and friends' influence on popularity levels in early and mid-adolescence. METHODS: Participants were 4205 Spanish adolescents (Mage = 13.1 years at Wave 1; 48% girls) belonging to 160 classrooms in two waves. Adolescents were asked about their friendships and the popularity of their classmates. RESULTS: Longitudinal social network analyses showed that adolescents preferred similarly popular peers as friends. High popular classmates were more attractive as friends, particularly in early adolescence. Popular adolescents were more selective in their friendship nominations and adolescents with popular friends became more popular over time. These two effects were only significant in mid-adolescents, although comparative analyses showed a similar tendency at both age groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of popularity levels in adolescents' friendship selection and suggests that popularity, at the individual and group level, plays a relevant role in social development. Implications adapted to the different selection and influence processes in early and mid-adolescence are discussed.

Adolescent Involvement in Cybergossip: Influence on Social Adjustment, Bullying and Cyberbullying.

Gossip is a type of social behavior present in all types of social networks, and cybergossip is an emerging kind of online social behavior which can both promote and hinder relationships between peers. The aim of this study was to explore the relation between involvement in cybergossip and the development of behavior of social adjustment, bullying and cyberbullying (aggression and victimization), based on gender and age. A total of 510 secondary school students (49.4% girls) aged 12 to 17 years old (M = 14.01; SD = 1.38) were surveyed by self-report. Questionnaires validated with adolescents were used to measure bullying, social adjustment and cyberbullying. The results showed that a high prevalence of involvement in cybergossip was associated with bullying and cyberbullying behavior (aggression and victimization), with girls showing the greatest involvement in cybergossip. The discussion of the results focuses on the gender difference, as well as the importance of the need for training in the proper use of digital devices for social education and socialization.

Positive Peer Perception, Social Anxiety and Classroom Social Adjustment as Risk Factors in Peer Victimization: A Multilevel Study.

OBJECTIVE: Individual risks factors of peer victimization have been widely identified in children and adolescents. However, little is known about how the classroom context may increase or decrease the frequency of victimization. The present short-term prospective longitudinal study used a a person-by-environment approach to examine whether peer perception and social anxiety, along with class social adjustment levels as a moderator, affect the likelihood of peer victimization over time. METHOD: These effects were modelled using a representative sample of 2,512 Andalusian (Southern Spain) (52% girls) aged 10 to 16 years old (M = 12.81; SD = 1.69 at Wave 1). Classroom social adjustment was assessed by within-classroom standard deviation in social adjustment. RESULTS: Multilevel modeling indicated a negative relationship between peer perception at W1 and peer victimization at W2, as well as a positive association with social anxiety at W1, after controlling for gender, age and victimization at W1. The direct association between peer perception and peer victimization was intensified by class social adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide a more nuanced understanding of the influence of cognitive, emotional, and social variables when trying to address vulnerability to victimization.

Positive Peer Perception, Social Anxiety and Classroom Social Adjustment as Risk Factors in Peer Victimization: A Multilevel Study / Percepción Positiva de los Iguales, Ansiedad Social y Ajuste Social enel Aula Como Factores de Riesgo de la Victimización Entre Escolares:un Estudio Multinivel

Objective: Individual risks factors of peer victimization have been widelyidentified in children and adolescents. However, little is known abouthow the classroom context may increase or decrease the frequency ofvictimization. The present short-term prospective longitudinal study useda a person-by-environment approach to examine whether peer perceptionand social anxiety, along with class social adjustment levels as a moderator,affect the likelihood of peer victimization over time. Method: Theseeffects were modelled using a representative sample of 2,512 Andalusian(Southern Spain) (52% girls) aged 10 to 16 years old (M = 12.81; SD =1.69 at Wave 1). Classroom social adjustment was assessed by within-classroom standard deviation in social adjustment. Results: Multilevelmodeling indicated a negative relationship between peer perception at W1and peer victimization at W2, as well as a positive association with socialanxiety at W1, after controlling for gender, age and victimization at W1.The direct association between peer perception and peer victimization wasintensified by class social adjustment. Conclusions: The results provide amore nuanced understanding of the influence of cognitive, emotional, andsocial variables when trying to address vulnerability to victimization

Objetivo: factores individuales de riesgo de lavictimización entre iguales han sido ampliamente identificados. Poco essabido sobre cómo el contexto del aula puede influir en la victimización.El presente estudio longitudinal prospectivo a corto plazo examinó, desdeun enfoque individuo-contexto, si la percepción de los iguales, la ansiedadsocial y los niveles de ajuste social de clase como moderador influyen enla probabilidad ser víctimas a lo largo del tiempo. Método: se contó unamuestra representativa andaluza (sur de España) de 2.512 escolares (52%chicas) entre 10 y 16 años (M = 12,81; DT = 1,69 en Tiempo 1). El ajustesocial en el aula se evaluó mediante la desviación típica de la variable.Resultados: la modelización multinivel indicó una relación negativaentre la percepción positiva de los iguales en T1 y la victimización enT2, y positiva con la ansiedad social en T1, controlando el sexo, la edady la victimización en T1. La asociación directa entre percepción de losiguales y victimización se intensificó por el nivel de ajuste social de laclase. Conclusiones: estos resultados proporcionan una comprensión másmatizada de la influencia de variables cognitivas, emocionales y socialespara abordar la vulnerabilidad a la victimización.

Adolescent Involvement in Cybergossip: Influence on Social Adjustment, Bullying and Cyberbullying

Gossip is a type of social behavior present in all types of social networks, and cybergossip is an emerging kind of online social behavior which can both promote and hinder relationships between peers. The aim of this study was to explore the relation between involvement in cybergossip and the development of behavior of social adjustment, bullying and cyberbullying (aggression and victimization), based on gender and age. A total of 510 secondary school students (49.4% girls) aged 12 to 17 years old (M = 14.01; SD = 1.38) were surveyed by self-report. Questionnaires validated with adolescents were used to measure bullying, social adjustment and cyberbullying. The results showed that a high prevalence of involvement in cybergossip was associated with bullying and cyberbullying behavior (aggression and victimization), with girls showing the greatest involvement in cybergossip. The discussion of the results focuses on the gender difference, as well as the importance of the need for training in the proper use of digital devices for social education and socialization. (AU)

Behaviours involved in the role of victim and aggressor in bullying: Relationship with physical fitness in adolescents.

Physical fitness is related to well-being and health. Adolescence is a key period in the psychological and social development of the person, in which interpersonal relationships gain strength, being bullying a type of violence that can affect the personality of those involved. At present, there is not enough research to determine the relationships between bullying and physical condition. The purpose of this study is to find out if there are any relationships among physical fitness, victimisation, and aggression in bullying, and to identify these behaviours. This is a descriptive study done in 1035 adolescents aged 12 to 17 years (M = 14.67, SD = 1.49). The European Bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (EBIPQ) scale was used, and anthropometric characteristics of weight and height were measured. In addition, physical fitness tests from the Eurofit battery, sit-and-reach, 30-second sit-ups, horizontal jump, manual dynamometry, and 20-meter Multistage Shuttle Run Test (SRT) were included. The relationships between variables were analysed using Spearman correlations, linear regressions, and ordinal regressions. The most relevant findings indicate an inverse relationship between being a victim of bullying and having a better cardiorespiratory cardiovascular endurance. These also show a direct relationship between being a bully and skeletal muscle strength measured through the horizontal jump, 30-second sit-ups, and manual dynamometry tests. Theoretically, we can conclude that physical condition can be considered a predictor to consider in bullying. Specifically, cardiorespiratory fitness, in addition to its multiple physical and mental benefits, may be a protective element against bullying victimisation. In contrast, muscular strength, especially in boys, may be an important predictor, especially in the physical component, of aggression in bullying.

Aggression, Moral Disengagement and Empathy. A Longitudinal Study Within the Interpersonal Dynamics of Bullying.

Moral disengagement and empathy have been linked to aggression in traditional bullying. A number of longitudinal studies have focused on how these variables predict aggressive behavior within the dynamics of bullying. However, no conclusive results have been produced as to whether aggressive behavior in bullying can predict lower levels of empathy, and to date, no studies have explored in depth the mediating role of moral disengagement strategies in this relationship, which is the aim of this study. A total of 1,810 students (51.0% girls; M age = 14.50; SD = 1.05) completed a survey in three waves at 6-month intervals. The results showed that aggressive behavior in bullying at Time 1 was inversely related to affective and cognitive empathy at Time 3. Minimization of responsibility, distortion of consequences and dehumanizing mediated in the aggressive behavior exhibited by the bullying aggressors and in cognitive empathy, while cognitive restructuring and the distortion of consequences mediated in affective empathy. We discuss the impact on moral and emotional sensitivity of the continued aggression occurring in the interpersonal dynamics of bullying, as well as the relationship between certain strategies of moral disengagement and the different types of empathy. We also comment on the need to design intervention programs to address the lowering of moral criteria and empathy in young people and adolescents involved in traditional bullying.

Bullying Perpetration, Moral Disengagement and Need for Popularity: Examining Reciprocal Associations in Adolescence.

Precursors and consequences of bullying have been widely explored, but much remains unclear about the association of moral and motivational factors. This study examined longitudinal associations between need for popularity, moral disengagement, and bullying perpetration. A total of 3017 participants, aged 11 to 16 years in wave 1 (49% girls; Mage = 13.15, SD = 1.09), were surveyed across four waves with six-month intervals. At the between-person level, cross-lagged modeling revealed a positive bidirectional association between moral disengagement and need for popularity; bullying perpetration was predicted by both need for popularity and moral disengagement. From the within-person level, random intercept cross-lagged analyses revealed that need for popularity predicted both moral disengagement and bullying perpetration. The results highlight the interplay between motivational and moral mechanisms that underlies bullying behavior.

Intimate Partner Aggression Committed by Prison Inmates with Psychopathic Profile.

Psychopathy and intimate partner aggression (IPA) are two concepts that usually appear concomitantly. Male violence toward women is often considered a psychopathic trait that sometimes involves the woman's homicide by her partner and, at other times, attempted homicide. This phenomenon has been studied by conducting interviews following Hare's model with 92 men incarcerated under a compliance regime in a Spanish prison (Córdoba). The results detected six explanatory factors of IPA as a result of attempted homicide or homicide: criminal past and delinquency, impulsivity, the need to stand out from others, lack of empathy, manipulation of others, and instability in partner relationships. The first two factors predict a occurrence of high scores on Hare's Psychopathy Checklist. The results are discussed, and future lines of research are presented, especially focused on the concept of dehumanization and revenge.

Los Predictores Psicosociales del Bullying Discriminatorio Debido al Estigma Ligado a las Necesidades Educativas Especiales (NEE) y la Discapacidad / Psychosocial predictors of discriminatory bullying based on the stigma towards special educational needs and/or disabilities (SEND)

El bullying discriminatorio a causa de las diferencias en las necesidades educativas especiales o discapacidad amenaza el desarrollo saludable de los adolescentes. El estudio pretende conocer si la autoestima, la empatía y las habilidades sociales son predictoras de este bullying discriminatorio (agresión y victimización). Una muestra de 1,640 adolescentes de 11 a 20 años, 820 de España (48.8% hombres y 51.2% mujeres) y 820 de Ecuador (49.3% hombres y 50.7% mujeres), participaron cumplimentando una batería de cuestionarios de autoinforme. Los resultados de los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales muestran que en ambos países la autoconfianza predice negativamente la victimización y la agresión y el autodesprecio positivamente; la asertividad es un predictor positivo de la agresión y negativo de la victimización. Se observan diferencias entre ambos países en el papel de las habilidades sociales (comunicativas y de resolución de conflictos) y de la empatía. Se discuten los resultados en relación con la naturaleza de este bullying discriminatorio y los programas educativos preventivos. (AU)

Discriminatory bullying based on differences in special educational needs or disability threatens the healthy development of adolescents. The study aims to find out whether self-esteem, empathy, and social skills are predictors of this discriminatory bullying (aggression and victimization). A sample of 1,640 adolescents aged 11 to 20, of which half are from Spain (48.8% male and 51.2% female) and half from Ecuador (49.3% men and 50.7% women), participated in the study by completing a battery of self-report questionnaires. The results of the structural equation models show that in both countries victimization and aggression are predicted negatively by self-confidence and positively by self-deprecation; assertiveness is a positive predictor of aggression and a negative predictor of victimization. Differences are observed between the two countries in the role of social skills (communication and conflict resolution) and empathy. These results are discussed in relation to the nature of this discriminatory bullying and preventive educational programs. (AU)

Moral Disengagement Strategies in Online and Offline Bullying / Las estrategias de desconexión moral en el acoso escolar virtual y cara a cara

Bullying and cyberbullying perpetration can involve cognitive processes of moral disengagement; however, there is no clear evidence about which strategies have the greatest influence on this type of behaviour. The aim of this paper was to examine which dimensions of moral disengagement were associated to bullying (off/online) and to explore the effect of gender and age. A total 1,274 students (48.6% girls, aged 11 to 17 years old) from the south of Spain were surveyed (M = 13.63, SD = 1.31). Multivariate multiple regression analyses showed that age and all moral disengagement mechanisms were associated with both offline and online bullying. Univariate regressions revealed that cognitive restructuring was the most strongly associated with both. The interaction between age and cognitive restructuring was only related to offline bullying. Simple slope analyses showed different effects for younger and older classmates at high levels of cognitive restructuring. Specific moral disengagement strategies have special significance for adolescent bullying and cyberbullying perpetration, with cognitive restructuring in particular promoting bullying perpetration in younger students. The results are discussed in relation to practical implications to prevent bullying and cyberbullying. (AU)

La agresión en forma de acoso escolar y ciberacoso implica la activación de procesos cognitivos de desconexión moral, aunque no existe una clara evidencia sobre las estrategias que influyen en mayor medida en este tipo de comportamiento. El objetivo fue examinar qué dimensiones de la desconexión moral se asociaban al acoso escolar (cara a cara/virtual) y explorar los efectos que tienen que ver con el sexo y la edad. Participaron un total de 1,274 estudiantes (48.6% chicas, de edades entre los 11 y 17 años) del sur de España (M = 13.63, DT = 1.31). Los análisis de regresión múltiple mostraron que la edad y todos los mecanismos de desconexión moral se asociaron con acoso escolar virtual y cara a cara; las regresiones univariadas indican que la restructuración cognitiva ha sido la estrategia más asociada. La interacción entre la edad y la restructuración cognitiva solo se ha relacionado con el acoso cara a cara. Los análisis de pendiente simple mostraron diferentes efectos en los más jóvenes y los más mayores cuando el nivel de restructuración cognitiva era alto. Las estrategias específicas de desconexión moral tienen una gran importancia en los comportamientos de agresión en forma de acoso y ciberacoso en los adolescentes, siendo la restructuración cognitiva la que particularmente potencia la agresión en forma de acoso en los alumnos más jóvenes. Se discuten los resultados en relación a sus implicaciones prácticas para prevenir el acoso y el ciberacoso. (AU)

Longitudinal associations between cybervictimization, anger rumination, and cyberaggression.

Adolescents' involvement in cyberbullying has been a growing public health concern for some time. Cybervictimization and cyberaggression are two phenomena that previous research has often shown to be associated. However, longitudinal research into these associations and also into potential risk factors for these phenomena is less common. Anger rumination is a proven risk factor for aggressive behavior, but the relationship between anger rumination and victimization is not clear. The present longitudinal study investigated the associations between cybervictimization, anger rumination and cyberbullying in a sample of 3017 adolescents (MW1 = 13.15; SD = 1.09; 49% girls) from 7th to 9th grade. The European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire and the Anger Rumination Scale were administered in four waves with 6 months intervals over a total period of 18 months. The associations between the variables were analyzed with a cross-lagged model. We found that: cybervictimization predicted anger rumination and cyberaggression; anger rumination was associated with later increases in both cybervictimization and cyberaggression: but involvement in cyberaggression predicted neither subsequent involvement in cybervictimization, nor in anger rumination. In addition, cybervictimization was found to mediate the association between anger rumination and cyberaggression. This study expands the understanding of the factors associated with cybervictimization and cyberaggression, and its results indicate that intervention programs should focus on boosting self-control to decrease impulsive behavior and protocols to prevent and intervene in cyberbullying.